Archaeological and Scientific Consensus: These animals, crops, and technologies were not present in the pre-Columbian Americas during the relevant time periods. The Spanish introduced horses only in the 16th century. Domesticated Old World livestock (cattle, sheep, swine, goats, oxen), wheat, true silk, iron/steel metallurgy, and practical wheeled transport/chariots are likewise absent from the archaeological record before European contact. (Source)

Key scholarly sources supporting this:

• Horse extinction and post-Columbian reintroduction: Taylor et al., “Early dispersal of domestic horses into the Northern Rockies and Great Plains” (Science, 2023); confirmed by multiple radiocarbon, DNA, and isotopic studies showing no continuous Equus populations through Book of Mormon times. (Source)
• Absence of practical wheeled vehicles: Clark Wissler (American Museum of Natural History) and Mesoamerican archaeology; small wheeled figurines/toys exist, but no evidence of draft animals or functional chariots/carts. (Source)
• Metallurgy: Dorothy Hosler and Blanca Maldonado — Mesoamerican metallurgy begins ~AD 600–800 in West Mexico and is limited to copper, gold, silver, and some arsenical alloys; no iron or steel smelting occurred anywhere in the pre-Columbian Americas. Andean metallurgy was more advanced with copper/bronze but likewise lacked iron/steel. (Source)
• Domestic animals and Old World crops (wheat, etc.): Standard archaeological consensus summarized in sources such as the Smithsonian Institution statements and reviews of pre-Columbian fauna/flora (no evidence of these domesticates before 1492).

Professional, non-LDS archaeologists and institutions are unanimous on this point. Yale Mesoamerican archaeologist Michael D. Coe stated the position clearly:

“These are the facts concerning Joseph Smith and the New World past. Mormon archaeologists over the years have almost unanimously accepted the Book of Mormon as an accurate, historical account of the New World peoples between about 2,000 B.C. and A.D. 421. They believe that Smith could translate heiroglyphs, whether “Reformed Egyptian” or ancient American, and that his translation of the Book of Abraham is authentic. Likewise, they accept the Kinderhook Plates as a bona fide archaeological discovery, and the reading of them as correct. Let me now state uncategorically that as far as I know there is not one professionally trained archaeologist, who is not a Mormon, who sees any scientific justification for believing the foregoing to be true, and I would like to state that there are quite a few Mormon archaeologists who join this group. This is in spite of a host of well-intentioned books and articles by Mormon intellectuals (whom I shall later discuss) trying to justify these claims.

The Smithsonian Institution has long maintained that it has never used the Book of Mormon as a scientific guide and sees “no direct connection between the archaeology of the New World and the subject matter of the book.” The National Geographic Society has made similar statements. (Source)

While the Book of Mormon lacks scientific evidence to support its claims, numerous archaeological discoveries provide independent evidence relevant to people, places, and events mentioned in the Bible.

Some of the most significant archaeological discoveries that corroborate people, places, events, or textual details mentioned in the Bible include the following. These strengthen the historical reliability of many biblical accounts by providing independent, extra-biblical confirmation (though they do not “prove” every theological claim). Scholarship continues to debate interpretations and precise details in some cases.

1. Tel Dan Stele (“House of David” Inscription): Discovered in 1993–1994 at Tel Dan in northern Israel. This 9th-century BCE Aramaic inscription (on basalt fragments) by an Aramean king (likely Hazael) boasts of victories over the “king of Israel” and the “king of the House of David” (bytdwd). It is the earliest widely accepted non-biblical reference to a Davidic dynasty, confirming David as a historical founder of a royal line in Judah roughly a century after the traditional biblical dating of his reign. Most scholars accept the reading.

• Key references: Biblical Archaeology Society overview; Wikipedia (Tel Dan Stele); Israel Museum (where it is displayed).
• Links: biblicalarchaeology.org; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tel_Dan_stele.

2. Mesha Stele (Moabite Stone): Discovered in 1868 in Dhiban, Jordan (now in the Louvre). This 9th-century BCE black basalt stele of King Mesha of Moab describes his revolt against Israel (House of Omri), conquests of cities, and capture of vessels of YHWH. It closely parallels the events in 2 Kings 3 (Omri’s domination of Moab, Mesha’s rebellion after Ahab’s death). It provides the earliest certain extra-biblical mention of the Israelite God YHWH and names places and the northern kingdom consistent with the biblical record. Some readings also support a “House of David” reference.

• Key references: World History Encyclopedia; Biblical Archaeology Society analyses.
• Links: worldhistory.org/Moabite_Stone_[Mesha_Stele]; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesha_Stele.

3. Pilate Stone Discovered in 1961 at Caesarea Maritima (Israel). This 1st-century CE limestone block bears a Latin dedicatory inscription naming “[Pon]tius Pilatus, [Praef]ectus Iuda[ea]e” (Pontius Pilate, Prefect of Judea), in connection with a Tiberieum (structure honoring Emperor Tiberius). It is the only contemporary archaeological inscription naming Pilate and confirms his title and role as Roman governor of Judea during the time of Jesus (as in the Gospels: Matthew 27, Mark 15, Luke 23, John 18–19). He is also mentioned by Josephus, Philo, and Tacitus.

• Key references: Wikipedia (Pilate stone); Israel Museum/Caesarea excavations.
• Links: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilate_stone.

4. Dead Sea Scrolls: Discovered from 1947 onward in caves near Qumran (West Bank). These ~900 manuscripts (3rd century BCE–1st century CE) include portions of nearly every book of the Hebrew Bible/Old Testament (except Esther), plus other Jewish texts. They push the manuscript evidence for the biblical text back about 1,000 years earlier than the previously known medieval Masoretic Text and show remarkable textual stability (with some variants). They confirm the antiquity and careful transmission of the biblical writings.

• Key references: National Geographic; Museum of the Bible resources; scholarly editions.
• Links: nationalgeographic.com; museumofthebible.org resources.

5. Merneptah Stele (Israel Stele): Discovered in 1896 by Flinders Petrie at Thebes, Egypt (now in the Egyptian Museum, Cairo). This victory stele of Pharaoh Merneptah (c. 1208 BCE) lists conquered peoples/places in Canaan and states “Israel is laid waste; its seed is no more.” It is the earliest extra-biblical reference to “Israel” as a people (using the determinative for a people group rather than a city-state), placing them in Canaan by the late 13th century BCE, consistent with the general biblical timeline of settlement.

• Key references: Wikipedia; Tyndale House analyses.
• Links: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merneptah_Stele.

6. Sennacherib’s Prisms (Taylor Prism and parallels) + Lachish Reliefs: Clay prisms (e.g., Taylor Prism, British Museum; others in Chicago and Jerusalem) from Nineveh record Assyrian King Sennacherib’s 701 BCE campaign. He claims to have taken 46 fortified cities of Judah, deported large numbers, and shut Hezekiah up in Jerusalem “like a bird in a cage,” after which Hezekiah paid tribute. Palace reliefs vividly depict the siege and capture of Lachish. These match the biblical accounts in 2 Kings 18–19, Isaiah 36–37, and 2 Chronicles 32 (cities taken, tribute paid, Jerusalem not captured). Recent research has also proposed identification of Jerusalem/Hezekiah on one of the throne-room relief slabs.

• Key references: British Museum; Bible Archaeology Report; Journal of Near Eastern Studies discussions.
• Links: British Museum collections; hebrewexplorer.com summaries.

7. Cyrus Cylinder Discovered in 1879 at Babylon (British Museum). This clay cylinder of Cyrus the Great (after the 539 BCE conquest of Babylon) describes restoring temples, returning displaced peoples and cult statues, and a policy of religious restoration. It provides broader historical context for the biblical accounts of Cyrus allowing Jewish exiles to return and rebuild the Temple in Jerusalem (Ezra 1; 2 Chronicles 36; Isaiah 44–45). While the cylinder focuses on Mesopotamian sites and does not name Judah/Jerusalem, it aligns with a known Persian policy of repatriation and temple restoration.

• Key references: British Museum; Biblical Archaeology Society.
• Links: britishmuseum.org (Cyrus Cylinder); biblicalarchaeology.org.

8. Black Obelisk of Shalmaneser III (Jehu of Israel) Discovered in 1846 at Nimrud (ancient Calah) in Iraq by Austen Henry Layard; now in the British Museum. This black limestone monument (c. 825 BCE) depicts foreign rulers bringing tribute to the Assyrian king Shalmaneser III. One panel shows a figure identified in the cuneiform inscription as “Jehu, son of Omri” (or “of the House of Omri”) bowing and presenting tribute (silver, gold, vessels, etc.). This is the earliest known pictorial representation of an Israelite king and independently confirms Jehu as king of the northern kingdom of Israel around 841 BCE, consistent with 2 Kings 9–10. The “son of Omri” designation was a common Assyrian way of referring to the dynasty even after Omri’s line ended.

• Links: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black_Obelisk_of_Shalmaneser_III; British Museum collections.

9. Hezekiah’s Tunnel (Siloam Tunnel) and Siloam Inscription: The ~533-meter water tunnel in Jerusalem, still accessible today, was cut through solid rock from the Gihon Spring to the Pool of Siloam. The Siloam Inscription (discovered in 1880 near the southern exit; now in the Istanbul Archaeological Museum) describes two teams of diggers meeting in the middle. Radiocarbon dating of organic material in the plaster and uranium-thorium dating of speleothems place construction around 700 BCE. This matches the biblical accounts of King Hezekiah preparing Jerusalem’s water supply in anticipation of the Assyrian threat (2 Kings 20:20; 2 Chronicles 32:2–4, 30; Isaiah 22:11). It is one of the best-preserved and most securely dated Iron Age structures linked to a named biblical king.

• Links: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Siloam_tunnel; scientific papers in Journal of Archaeological Science and Nature.

10. Caiaphas Ossuary Discovered in 1990 in a first-century CE family tomb in Jerusalem’s Peace Forest. One ornate limestone ossuary (bone box) is inscribed in Aramaic “Yehosef bar Qayafa” / “Joseph son of Caiaphas” (twice). Pottery, lamps, and a coin of Herod Agrippa date the tomb to the first century. A second related ossuary (the Miriam ossuary, recovered later) also references the Caiaphas family. Josephus and the New Testament both identify Joseph Caiaphas as the high priest who presided over the trial of Jesus (Matthew 26; John 18; etc.). Most scholars accept this as belonging to the high-priestly family, and many regard the ornate box as likely that of Caiaphas himself.

• Links: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caiaphas_ossuary; Israel Museum; Bible Archaeology Report summaries.

11. Belshazzar and the Nabonidus Cylinders / Chronicle: For a long time Belshazzar (Daniel 5) was unknown outside the Bible, while Nabonidus was listed as Babylon’s last king. In 1854, clay cylinders from Ur (British Museum) record Nabonidus praying for “Bel-shar-usur [Belshazzar], the eldest son, the offspring of my body.” The Nabonidus Chronicle and Verse Account of Nabonidus show that Nabonidus spent years in Arabia and “entrusted the kingship” to his eldest son. Administrative tablets treat Belshazzar as exercising royal authority. This confirms Belshazzar as co-regent (explaining why Daniel could be offered the position of “third ruler” in the kingdom) and fits the night of Babylon’s fall in 539 BCE.

• Links: British Museum (Nabonidus cylinders); scholarly discussions of the Nabonidus Chronicle. (Source 1, 2)

12. The Hittites: The Bible frequently mentions the Hittites (e.g., Genesis 23; 2 Samuel; 1–2 Kings). In the 19th century, many scholars doubted their existence as a major power. Excavations beginning in 1906 at Boğazköy (Hattusa) in central Turkey uncovered the capital of a large Late Bronze Age empire, along with thousands of cuneiform tablets (including the famous treaty with Egypt’s Ramesses II). Neo-Hittite states continued in Syria afterward. This completely reversed earlier skepticism and showed the Bible accurately reflected a major ancient Near Eastern civilization.

• Links: Tyndale House and Associates for Biblical Research overviews; museum collections of Hittite artifacts. (Source 1, 2)

13. Pool of Siloam. In 2004, during sewer work in the City of David (Jerusalem), archaeologists Ronny Reich and Eli Shukron uncovered a large stepped stone pool dating to the late Second Temple / Herodian period (coins of Alexander Jannaeus help date the plaster). It matches the location and description of the Pool of Siloam where Jesus sent the man born blind to wash (John 9:1–11). The pool was fed by Hezekiah’s Tunnel (already covered earlier). More recent excavations (announced around 2025) revealed a massive earlier dam wall (roughly 12 m high, over 8 m thick in places) radiocarbon-dated to about 805–795 BCE (reign of Joash of Judah). This shows a long history of water management at the site going back to the First Temple period, consistent with biblical references to Siloam / the King’s Pool (e.g., Nehemiah 3:15; Isaiah 8:6; 2 Kings 20:20; 2 Chronicles 32).

• Links: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pool_of_Siloam; Israel Antiquities Authority / City of David reports; Tyndale Bulletin articles.

14. Yehohanan (Jehohanan) Crucifixion Victim. In 1968 at Giv‘at ha-Mivtar (Jerusalem), an ossuary inscribed “Yehohanan son of Hagkol” contained a right heel bone pierced by an iron nail (still embedded, with wood fragments). The remains date to the 1st century CE. This is the clearest physical evidence of Roman crucifixion from the period of Jesus. It confirms that victims could be nailed through the heels and, importantly, that at least some crucified individuals received formal Jewish burial in family tombs—consistent with the Gospel accounts of Jesus’ burial.

• Links: (Source)

15. Shishak / Sheshonq I Karnak Relief (Bubastite Portal) At the Karnak Temple in Luxor, Egypt, Pharaoh Sheshonq I (biblical Shishak, 22nd Dynasty, mid-10th century BCE) recorded a campaign into Canaan on the Bubastite Portal. The relief lists over 150 places, including several biblical sites (Megiddo, Gibeon, Arad, etc.). A fragment of a victory stele of Sheshonq was also found at Megiddo. This aligns with the biblical account of Shishak invading Judah in the fifth year of Rehoboam and taking treasures from the Temple and royal palace (1 Kings 14:25–26; 2 Chronicles 12).

• Links: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bubastite_Portal; Karnak Temple site; Bible Archaeology Report biographies of Shishak.

16. Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III Discovered in 1861 at Kurkh (Turkey); now in the British Museum. This limestone stela of Assyrian king Shalmaneser III records the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BCE. Among the coalition opposing him, it lists “Ahab the Israelite” (A-ha-ab-bu Sir-ila-a-a) with 2,000 chariots and 10,000 troops—one of the largest contributions. This is an independent contemporary reference to King Ahab of Israel (1 Kings 16–22) and shows the northern kingdom as a major military power at that time. It also mentions Hadadezer of Damascus (related to the biblical Ben-Hadad figures).

• Links: en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kurkh_Monoliths; British Museum; Biblical Archaeology Society summaries.

17. Seal Impressions (Bullae) of Biblical Officials: Excavations in Jerusalem’s City of David (especially by Eilat Mazar) and other controlled digs have yielded clay seal impressions naming officials from the late First Temple period. Notable examples include:

• Jehucal (Jucal), son of Shelemiah, and Gedaliah, son of Pashhur — both named together in Jeremiah 38:1 as officials under King Zedekiah who opposed the prophet. Bullae reading “Belonging to Jehucal, son of Shelemiah, son of Shovi” and “Belonging to Gedaliah, son of Pashhur” were found in the City of David.
• Gemariah son of Shaphan (Jeremiah 36) — a bulla from a controlled excavation.

These are among the strongest personal confirmations of secondary biblical figures. Lawrence Mykytiuk’s criteria classify several as strong identifications. (Note: the famous Baruch son of Neriah bullae are from the antiquities market and more debated, though some recent analyses support authenticity.) Links: (Source 1, 2)

18. Babylonian Chronicles (Nebuchadnezzar Chronicle): The “Chronicle Concerning the Early Years of Nebuchadnezzar II” (British Museum, BM 21946 / ABC 5) records that in Nebuchadnezzar’s seventh year he besieged “the city of Judah” (Jerusalem), captured the king on 2 Adar (16 March 597 BCE), appointed a king of his own choice (Zedekiah), and took heavy tribute to Babylon. This matches 2 Kings 24:10–17 and related passages about the first major deportation of Jehoiachin and the installation of Zedekiah. Complementary ration tablets from Babylon name “Ya’u-kīnu, king of the land of Judah” (Jehoiachin) and his sons receiving oil rations while in captivity. Links: (Source)

19. Bethsaida (el-Araj) Excavations at el-Araj (on the northern shore of the Sea of Galilee) have uncovered a first-century Jewish fishing village that was later upgraded to a Roman city (consistent with Josephus’s account of Philip renaming Bethsaida as Julias). Finds include fishing weights, Jewish stone vessels, a Roman bathhouse, and a fifth-century Byzantine basilica with a mosaic inscription referring to the “chief of the apostles and keeper of the keys of heaven” (a clear allusion to Peter). A first-century house lies beneath the church apse. This strongly supports identification as the New Testament Bethsaida — hometown of Peter, Andrew, and Philip (John 1:44) and a site of Jesus’ ministry (e.g., Mark 8; Luke 9). A competing site (et-Tell) exists, but el-Araj currently has the stronger case based on location, finds, and early Christian tradition. Links: (Source)

Taken together, these discoveries provide independent evidence for a range of biblical-era individuals, kingdoms, political events, and locations. The cumulative effect of seals, chronicles, reliefs, and site identifications is one of the strongest lines of external support for the historical framework of both Testaments.

Additional Notes: Other strong corroborations include the existence of dozens of named biblical figures (kings, officials) confirmed via seals, bullae, and inscriptions. Research by scholars such as Lawrence Mykytiuk has documented over 50:

Archaeology does not confirm every biblical detail (and some finds are debated), but the cumulative evidence for the historical setting, many named individuals, kingdoms, and major events is substantial and continues to grow with new excavations and analyses.

• Book of Mormon (Jacob 2:23–30): Strongly condemns the practice of having multiple wives and concubines as “abominable” before the Lord. It states that David and Solomon’s many wives were abominable. The only narrow exception given is if the Lord specifically commands it “to raise up seed.”
• Doctrine and Covenants 132: Presents plural marriage as a divine commandment and part of the “new and everlasting covenant.” It states that David and Solomon did not sin in the things they received from the Lord (including their wives), and it authorizes and regulates the practice.